Disclaimer: This profile is for educational purposes only. It is not medical or legal advice.
Cannabis refers to the psychoactive drug preparations from the Cannabis plant, prized for their mind-altering effects and medicinal potential. As a neuroactive botanical, it straddles the line between pharmacology and cultural iconography. The plant’s main psychoactive ingredient, THC, induces a characteristic “high” – a state of euphoria, sensory alteration, and relaxation. Cannabis also contains CBD and dozens of other cannabinoids and terpenes, which contribute to its complex effects. For millennia, people have utilized cannabis for varied purposes: as a sacred visionary plant, a source of folk medicine, and a recreational intoxicant. In modern times it has gained significant scientific and public interest for its potential therapeutic uses (pain relief, anti-inflammatory, anti-convulsant, etc.) alongside its well-known recreational use. This dual nature – both medicinal herb and mind-altering substance – makes cannabis a subject of ongoing research and societal debate. Today, cannabis is one of the most widespread psychoactive substances globally, and its significance spans ancient ritual to pop culture, from traditional healing to cutting-edge neuroscience.
History & Cultural Context
Cannabis boasts a rich history interwoven with human culture on nearly every continent. Ancient origins: The plant is believed to be indigenous to Central Asia; archaeological evidence and early texts suggest its use dates back to prehistoric times. The earliest recorded mention appears in ancient China – an emperor’s pharmacopoeia attributed to Emperor Shen Nung circa 2800 BCE lists cannabis (“Ma”) as a remedy for ailments ranging from rheumatism to malaria [Crocq 2020]. By 500 BCE, the Scythians (Central Asian nomads) were ritually inhaling hemp vapors – as noted by the Greek historian Herodotus – throwing cannabis flowers on hot stones in enclosed tents to create intoxicating smoke. In ancient India, cannabis was revered as one of the sacred plants. The Vedas (1500–1000 BCE) mention a divine intoxicant which many scholars believe to be cannabis; Hindu mythology gives Shiva the title “Lord of Bhang,” referring to a cannabis-infused drink used to elevate spiritual consciousness. Bhang has been consumed in religious festivals like Holi for centuries as a means to commune with the divine.
Throughout the Middle East and Islamic world, cannabis (hashish) became embedded in culture by the medieval period. Sufi mystics and Persian poets praised hashish’s ability to open the mind to mystical insight. Legends arose of the Hashashin (Assassins) in the 12th century purportedly using hashish before missions (though these tales are likely exaggerated folklore). In Africa, cannabis (often called “dagga”) was traditionally smoked in ritual contexts and as medicine by various ethnic groups. Ancient Egyptian texts may reference cannabis for glaucoma and inflammation, and some suggest it was used ceremonially. By the 19th century, cannabis had traveled with global trade: Western medicine rediscovered it when Irish physician William O’Shaughnessy, working in colonial India, introduced cannabis tincture to Europe in 1841 as a treatment for ailments like pain, convulsions, and muscle spasms. Victorian-era physicians in Europe and America widely used cannabis extracts for everything from migraines to insomnia.
Socially and culturally, cannabis has been both celebrated and demonized. In the early 20th century, its recreational use spread in the Americas (often via Mexico and the Caribbean, where it was used by immigrants and in jazz subculture). The U.S. in the 1930s launched an anti-cannabis campaign (epitomized by the propaganda film “Reefer Madness”) and prohibited cannabis nationally in 1937, casting it as a menacing drug. Despite prohibition, many cultures maintained traditional uses: for example, Rastafarians in Jamaica from the mid-20th century embraced “ganja” as a sacramental herb, integral to religious meditation and reggae music culture. Meanwhile, indigenous communities and traditional healers worldwide quietly continued using cannabis for medicine and ceremony.
In recent decades, a global shift has occurred: attitudes are softening as scientific research validates some medicinal properties and as cultural memory of traditional uses resurfaces. Several countries and numerous U.S. states have legalized cannabis in some form, reviving ethnobotanical knowledge and modern medical interest. Thus, cannabis’s cultural symbolism today is multi-faceted – it remains a counterculture emblem of freedom and creativity, a sacred plant in spiritual contexts, and a subject of serious scientific inquiry and economic interest as societies reconsider its place in modern life.
Chemistry & Pharmacology
Cannabis is chemically rich, containing hundreds of biologically active compounds. Foremost among them are phytocannabinoids, a unique class of chemicals that interact with the human endocannabinoid system. Δ⁹-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary psychoactive cannabinoid. At the molecular level, THC is a partial agonist of cannabinoid receptors, notably CB₁ receptors abundantly present in the brain [Pertwee 2008]. By binding to CB₁ (and CB₂ in the immune system to a lesser extent), THC mimics the actions of our body’s endogenous cannabinoids (such as anandamide and 2-AG). This receptor activation initiates a cascade of effects: inhibition of certain neurotransmitter releases (e.g., GABA, glutamate), disinhibition of dopamine (hence mild dopaminergic stimulation underlying euphoria), and modulation of neuronal excitability. The net pharmacological effect is a complex mix of neural inhibition and excitation across different brain regions – yielding changes in mood, perception, appetite, pain-sensation, and more. CBD (cannabidiol), the second most abundant cannabinoid in many strains, has a very different pharmacology. CBD has little direct affinity for CB₁/CB₂ receptors (and thus produces no intoxication); instead, it influences other targets – for example, it acts as a negative allosteric modulator of CB₁ and as an agonist at serotonin 5-HT₁A receptors, among other pathways. Through these mechanisms, CBD can actually buffer the psychoactive impact of THC, often reducing anxiety or paranoia induced by THC and providing potential anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, or anti-seizure benefits [Blessing et al. 2015].
Beyond THC and CBD, over 100 minor cannabinoids (CBG, CBN, THCV, etc.) have been identified, each with subtle pharmacologic profiles. Terpenes – the aromatic compounds (like myrcene, limonene, pinene) – are also abundant in cannabis resin and may modulate effects (the so-called “entourage effect”), though this synergy is still under investigation. From a chemical standpoint, raw cannabis chiefly contains cannabinoid acids (e.g., THCA, CBDA) that are inactive until decarboxylation (activated by heat or aging). That is why heating (smoking, vaping, cooking) is necessary to produce the psychoactive THC from the plant material.
Pharmacokinetics: The route of administration greatly influences the drug’s kinetics. When cannabis smoke or vapor is inhaled, THC rapidly crosses from the lungs into the bloodstream and reaches the brain within minutes. Users typically feel first effects almost immediately, often within 30 seconds, with full effects peaking at ~15–30 minutes after smoking [Huestis 2007]. The concentration of THC in blood falls sharply after the peak due to redistribution into tissues, but psychoactive effects can persist for 2–3 hours as brain levels remain sufficient. In contrast, with oral ingestion (e.g. edibles or drink), absorption is slower and erratic. THC passes through the liver before entering circulation (first-pass metabolism), where a portion is converted to 11-hydroxy-THC, a potent active metabolite. Thus, ingested cannabis has a delayed onset (usually 30–90 minutes to feel effects) and often a stronger, more long-lasting intoxication per equivalent dose. The peak effects of edibles occur around 2–3 hours post-consumption and can last 6–8 hours (some effects lingering even longer) [Huestis 2007]. This difference often surprises users – the oral route yields a slower but sometimes more intense psychoactivity. Metabolism of THC produces both active (11-OH-THC) and inactive (THC-COOH) metabolites; these are lipid-soluble and can remain in the body for a long time (leading to positive drug tests days or weeks after use, long after subjective effects have worn off). The elimination half-life of THC and its metabolites can range from a day to several days, reflecting storage in fat tissues. CBD, when taken, also has oral bioavailability challenges and is processed by liver enzymes (notably CYP3A4 and CYP2C19), potentially affecting the metabolism of other drugs.
Receptor targets: The endocannabinoid system (ECS) – only discovered in the late 20th century – comprises the CB₁ and CB₂ receptors and our body’s own cannabinoid chemicals. CB₁ receptors are extremely dense in areas like the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum, explaining cannabis’s effects on cognition, memory, coordination, and time perception. Activation of CB₁ on presynaptic neurons generally dampens neurotransmitter release, functioning as a neuromodulatory system. CB₂ receptors are mostly outside the brain (immune cells, peripheral tissues) and relate to cannabis’s anti-inflammatory and pain-modulating properties without causing a high. THC’s psychoactive high is almost entirely due to CB₁ activation; mice without CB₁ receptors, for instance, do not get intoxicated by THC. Meanwhile, CBD’s interplay with the ECS is complex – it can raise endocannabinoid levels by inhibiting their breakdown and can antagonize some effects of THC at the receptor level. Intriguingly, cannabinoids also interact with other receptors: TRPV (vanilloid) receptors (involved in pain signaling), GPR55 (a proposed cannabinoid-related receptor), opioid receptors, and dopamine and serotonin systems indirectly. These polypharmacological actions are a frontier of current research.
In summary, cannabis pharmacology is a balance of plant chemistry and human biology: THC provides the “key” that fits the lock of our brain’s cannabinoid receptors, unleashing a cascade of neural effects, while other compounds like CBD modulate the experience. Understanding this interplay has not only elucidated how cannabis works but also revealed the broader role of the endocannabinoid system in health and disease.
Subjective Profile
The cannabis “high” is a multifaceted experience affecting mind, body, and emotions. Mental and emotional effects: Users commonly report a gentle onset of euphoria and well-being, often marked by an uplifted mood and stress reduction. Thoughts may flow more freely; cannabis can induce a dreamy introspective state where abstract or creative thinking flourishes. Many enjoy an enhanced appreciation of art and sensory experiences – music may seem richer, colors more vivid, humor and everyday situations profoundly amusing. Time perception is famously distorted: minutes might feel like hours under cannabis’s influence. At moderate doses, cannabis tends to have a socially relaxing effect – users often describe feeling more talkative or giggly, with a sense of camaraderie. Metacognition can increase, meaning users become very aware of their own thoughts, sometimes leading to novel insights or, conversely, lapses in short-term memory (the classic experience of losing one’s train of thought mid-sentence).
Physically, cannabis induces relaxation. Muscles loosen and tension eases; a warm, tingling body sensation is common, especially with indica-leaning varieties. Many users experience an increased tactile sensitivity – touch and physical sensations may be pleasantly amplified. Appetite stimulation, known colloquially as “the munchies,” often sets in during the latter part of a cannabis session – food can taste exceptionally good and one may suddenly find oneself ravenous. Other common somatic effects include dry mouth (a thirst known as “cottonmouth”), bloodshot eyes (due to dilation of conjunctival blood vessels), and a mild increase in heart rate. Cannabis can also make one feel alternately flushed or chilled as it slightly dysregulates body temperature perception. Coordination and motor skills are usually impaired to a degree (reaction time slows, balance can waver), contributing to the advice not to drive or operate machinery while high.
The subjective effects are dose-dependent and context-dependent. Low doses (or strains low in THC) may produce only subtle mood lifts, focus, and creativity, with minimal impairment – some users find micro-doses of cannabis can even be stimulating or help concentration. Moderate doses bring on the classic high described above. High doses, however, can shift the experience significantly. With heavy intoxication (such as consuming a very strong edible or potent concentrate), sensory distortions become more pronounced: one might experience mild hallucinations or illusions – e.g. sounds taking on unusual clarity or visual patterns emerging with eyes closed. A strong dose can also induce dissociative feelings – users sometimes report feeling detached from their body or surroundings, a sensation of observing oneself from outside (depersonalization/derealization). Thoughts can become extremely unfocused or loop in strange patterns, and short-term memory may virtually vanish during the peak effects.
Not all effects are pleasant. Anxiety or paranoia is the most commonly reported adverse effect of cannabis intoxication – especially in inexperienced users or with potent THC-rich strains. Up to a third of users have experienced moments of panic or fearful thoughts after consuming a bit too much THC, characterized by a racing heart, worry, and a sense of vulnerability. This is more likely in unfamiliar settings or when one’s mindset is already anxious. Importantly, the presence of CBD in a cannabis strain can help counteract THC-induced anxiety for many people; traditional preparations like bhang, which often use whole-plant paste, may naturally include some CBD, whereas modern high-THC extracts lack that buffering component. Paranoid ideation (e.g., thinking others are watching or judging you) can occur transiently. In rare cases, susceptible individuals may experience short-lived psychotic-like symptoms – such as hallucinations or delusions – during a very strong high. These almost always wear off as the drug’s effects fade (within a few hours), but they can be distressing in the moment.
Physiologically, aside from the aforementioned dry mouth and red eyes, cannabis acutely can cause orthostatic hypotension (lowered blood pressure upon standing) leading to dizziness or faintness in some users. Conversely, it also triggers an increased heart rate. For most healthy individuals, these changes are mild and well-tolerated, producing only a sense of relaxation or slight light-headedness. Cannabis’s blend of stimulant, depressant, and mild hallucinogenic effects defies easy classification – it can simultaneously calm nerves while speeding the pulse, sharpen certain perceptions while blurring memory. The overall profile varies with the chemotype of the plant (THC-to-CBD ratio, terpene content), the individual’s tolerance and neurobiology, and situational factors.
After the main effects subside, users typically experience a gentle “comedown” or afterglow. This may involve residual physical relaxation and sedation – for instance, many find it easy to fall into a deep sleep a few hours after using cannabis, especially with indica varieties. Some describe the post-high phase as contemplative or emotionally sensitive. Importantly, unlike stimulants, cannabis does not usually produce a harsh crash; instead, the user gradually returns to baseline over several hours, though heavy use might leave one feeling a bit foggy or lethargic the next day. In summary, the subjective cannabis experience ranges from blissful relaxation and enhanced sensory enjoyment to, at high doses or in adverse conditions, disorientation and anxiety. Each person’s response can differ, making cannabis a uniquely personal “journey” into an altered state of consciousness.
Preparation & Forms
Over its long history, humans have developed numerous preparations and routes to consume cannabis, each influencing the experience. The simplest form is the dried flowering tops (buds) of the plant, which can be smoked. Smoking remains the most traditional and widespread method: cannabis flowers are typically rolled into a “joint” (cigarette) or smoked in a pipe or water pipe (bong). In a similar vein, some cultures historically mixed cannabis with tobacco or other herbs when smoking (for example, in spliffs or chillums) to moderate the effects. Smoking delivers THC to the bloodstream almost instantly, giving the user fine control over dosage—one can pause after a puff or two to gauge effects before continuing. However, combustion also produces irritant byproducts, and long-term smoking carries respiratory risks (cough, bronchitis) even if cannabis smoke has not been conclusively linked to lung cancer in studies so far.
A modern smokeless alternative is vaporization. Vaporizers heat cannabis (flower or concentrated oil) to a temperature that releases cannabinoids and terpenes as vapor without burning the plant matter. Users inhale a mist containing the active compounds but far fewer toxins than smoke. Vaporization has gained popularity as a purportedly healthier and more discreet method, as it produces less odor and irritation.
Eating or drinking cannabis in oral preparations has an equally lengthy pedigree. In traditional Indian culture, bhang is a cannabis-infused milk beverage made by grinding cannabis leaves and buds into a paste, then mixing with spices, milk, and sugar. Bhang has been used for centuries in religious festivals and Ayurvedic medicine. Another ancient preparation is hashish, which originated in the Middle East and Central Asia. Hashish is essentially the concentrated resin of cannabis: traditionally, makers would sieve dried cannabis to collect the sticky resin glands (trichomes) into kief and then compress it with heat into blocks of hashish. In places like Morocco, Afghanistan, and Nepal, hashish has long been smoked (often mixed with tobacco or in pipes) or eaten in confections. A related form is charas, hand-rubbed resin rolled from live cannabis flowers, used similarly to hashish (notably in the Himalayas).
In the West, by the 19th century, tinctures (alcohol-based cannabis extracts) were common in apothecaries. Patients would take a few drops of cannabis tincture orally for analgesic or sedative effects. This has seen a comeback in modern medical cannabis usage – sublingual tinctures or oils allow absorption through the oral mucosa, giving relatively rapid onset (15–45 minutes) without inhalation. Modern oral edibles have exploded in popularity in recent years: cannabis can be infused into butter or oil and then cooked into brownies, cookies, gummies, chocolates, or virtually any food. Edibles offer a smoke-free, longer-lasting effect, but as noted, dosing can be tricky due to delayed onset – a common pitfall is the novice user eating more than intended, thinking the first dose “did nothing” after an hour, only to experience an overwhelming high later. Thus, standardized-dose commercial edibles (often 5 or 10 mg THC per serving) and the adage “start low, go slow” have become important harm-reduction guidelines.
Another category is concentrates and extracts. Hashish was the original concentrate; today, technology has created even more potent forms. Examples include hash oil (a viscous extract), shatter, wax, and other butane hash oil (BHO) or CO₂-extracted resins. These products can have very high THC concentrations (50–80%+ THC) and are often vaporized (“dabbed”) on a hot surface to inhale a large dose rapidly. They represent a modern evolution of cannabis preparation, prized by experienced users seeking stronger effects or rapid medicinal dosing for severe symptoms. However, their potency demands caution.
There are also topical preparations: cannabis-infused balms, lotions, and transdermal patches. These are applied to the skin for localized relief of pain or inflammation (e.g., arthritic joints). Topicals generally do not produce a psychoactive high because cannabinoids poorly penetrate the bloodstream through the skin, though transdermal patches can slowly release cannabinoids into circulation.
Across all these forms, the act of preparation often carries cultural significance. Rolling a joint can be a almost ritualistic social act; sharing a pipe can have ceremonial undertones (as in some indigenous practices). Brewing bhang for a festival is imbued with traditional reverence. Even the modern phenomenon of “dabbing” concentrates has its own subculture and technique. Each method also has practical implications: Inhalation (smoking/vaping) offers quick onset and fine titration of dose, oral ingestion offers longevity and a different body-centered high, and sublingual or rectal routes (the latter less common, though cannabis suppositories exist for medical use) can offer unique pharmacokinetic profiles (bypassing some first-pass metabolism).
In summary, cannabis can be enjoyed or administered in myriad ways – from the simple act of smoking a cured flower, to consuming age-old recipes like bhang or modern brownies, to using advanced extracts with precision dosing. The choice of preparation influences not only the effects timeline (onset, intensity, duration) but also the cultural experience surrounding its use.
Safety & Cautions
While cannabis is often considered a relatively low-toxicity substance (there is no known lethal overdose threshold from THC alone), it is not without risks and side effects. Acute risks: The immediate effects of cannabis include impairment of short-term memory, attention, and coordination. Thus, one major safety concern is accidents – for example, driving under the influence of cannabis significantly increases the risk of motor vehicle crashes. Reflexes are slower and judgment can be compromised during a high, so operating machinery or engaging in risky physical activities is strongly discouraged. Another acute adverse effect, as discussed, is anxiety or panic reactions. These can be frightening but are temporary. If someone becomes very anxious after using cannabis, the general advice is to stay calm in a safe environment and wait for the effects to subside; having a sober, reassuring friend present helps. In cases of extreme overconsumption (often via edibles), people occasionally seek medical help for what is essentially a prolonged panic attack combined with physical discomfort – symptoms can include a rapid heartbeat, sweating, nausea, and a feeling of loss of control. Medical professionals typically provide a calm environment and sometimes a mild sedative; the symptoms wear off as the drug’s effect fades. Notably, no fatal overdose of cannabis has been documented; the margin of safety (difference between an impairing dose and a deadly dose) is very large compared to many other substances.
Physiological side effects: Cannabis causes transient increases in heart rate and slight blood pressure fluctuations. This is usually well-tolerated by healthy individuals, but could pose a risk for people with pre-existing heart conditions. There have been rare case reports of heart attacks or arrhythmias triggered by cannabis in susceptible individuals, often involving older patients or those with coronary disease. Another condition in heavy chronic users is Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome (CHS) – characterized by cyclic episodes of severe nausea and vomiting, which paradoxically are relieved by hot showers. CHS is not fully understood but is important to recognize, as it requires cessation of cannabis use to resolve. Smoking cannabis (particularly mixed with tobacco) can irritate the respiratory tract – chronic smokers may develop bronchitis symptoms (cough, phlegm). However, epidemiological studies, somewhat surprisingly, have not definitively linked regular cannabis smoking with lung cancer in the way tobacco is linked, possibly due to lower quantities smoked and anti-tumor properties of cannabinoids noted in some lab studies. Nonetheless, inhaling any combusted plant material is not benign for lung health.
Dependency and mental health: Cannabis can be habit-forming. Approximately 1 in 10 users will develop a cannabis use disorder (addiction), and this likelihood increases to about 1 in 6 for those who begin use in adolescence [Volkow et al. 2014]. Withdrawal from heavy daily use – while not life-threatening – can involve irritability, insomnia, loss of appetite, and mood disturbances, which, though milder than opiate or alcohol withdrawal, can make quitting challenging. Frequent use, especially of high-THC strains, has been linked in some studies to an increased risk of mental health issues. Of particular note is the association between heavy adolescent cannabis use and psychosis or schizophrenia in predisposed individuals. While cannabis doesn’t “cause” schizophrenia outright, use during teen years (when the brain is still developing) appears to increase the likelihood of triggering latent schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders in those with genetic or other vulnerabilities. In adults, acute high doses of THC can produce short-lived psychotic episodes (as mentioned, hallucinations or paranoid delusions), but these usually resolve completely. There is also concern that long-term heavy cannabis use may have subtle cognitive effects – some studies find chronic users perform worse on memory and attention tests, though it’s debated how much these deficits persist after a period of abstinence. The developing brain is thought to be more susceptible, which is why adolescents are advised strongly to postpone cannabis use.
Contraindications and interactions: Cannabis is contraindicated in individuals with a history of allergic reaction to it (rare) and those with serious mental illness like schizophrenia or severe anxiety disorders, as it can exacerbate symptoms. Pregnant women are advised not to use cannabis – THC crosses the placenta and can affect the fetus. Studies have linked prenatal cannabis exposure to lower birth weight and possible neurodevelopmental effects on children. Another area of caution is combining cannabis with other substances. Alcohol and cannabis together have a synergistic intoxicating effect; this combination significantly increases impairment (often more than either alone) and risk of nausea or panic. Cannabis can also enhance sedative effects of CNS depressants (e.g., benzodiazepines or opioids), so those combinations should be approached carefully if at all. On a metabolic level, both THC and CBD can interfere with liver enzymes (the CYP450 family), meaning cannabis might alter blood levels of certain medications if used concurrently – for example, CBD can increase levels of blood thinners or anti-seizure drugs by slowing their breakdown. Patients using medical cannabis alongside prescription meds should consult healthcare providers for potential drug interactions.
Legal status (U.S.): Cannabis legality is rapidly evolving. As of 2025, at the federal level in the United States, cannabis remains classified as a Schedule I controlled substance – illegal to manufacture, possess, or distribute (outside of tightly regulated research) under federal law. However, state laws vary widely. A majority of states have legalized medical cannabis in some form (with specific qualifying conditions and regulations), and as of 2025, 24 U.S. states plus D.C. have legalized recreational (adult-use) cannabis for persons over 21. This patchwork legal landscape means that the same plant is viewed as a legitimate medicine or a lawful intoxicant in some jurisdictions, while remaining contraband in others. Travelers must be cautious, as crossing state or international lines with cannabis can result in serious legal consequences, even if it was obtained legally in the origin state. Globally, some countries (e.g., Canada, Uruguay, parts of Europe) have nationally legalized or decriminalized cannabis, whereas others enforce strict prohibition. It’s important to note that “legal” does not mean “safe” – legalization frameworks usually include age restrictions, potency regulations, and public health campaigns to minimize abuse and youth access. Consumers should stay informed about their local laws and also about the quality/potency of cannabis products they use (regulated markets often provide lab testing and labeling of THC/CBD content, which helps in dosing and safety).
In conclusion, while cannabis has a relatively favorable safety profile compared to many psychoactive drugs – especially in terms of acute toxicity – its use is not without potential downsides. Respect for dosage, awareness of one’s own health and mental state, and understanding the legal context are all important. The current scientific consensus (as summarized by major reviews like the National Academies 2017 report) acknowledges real therapeutic benefits of cannabis and cannabinoids for certain conditions (chronic pain, chemotherapy-induced nausea, etc.) but also underscores the need for caution: particularly regarding heavy use, use at a young age, and the uncertain long-term effects. As research continues, users and policymakers alike are better informed to maximize benefits and mitigate risks of this ancient yet continually reinvented plant drug.
References
- Crocq, M. A. (2020). History of cannabis and the endocannabinoid system. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 22(3), 223–228.
- Huestis, M. A. (2007). Human cannabinoid pharmacokinetics. Chemistry & Biodiversity, 4(8), 1770–1804.
- Pertwee, R. G. (2008). The diverse CB1 and CB2 receptor pharmacology of cannabinoids. British Journal of Pharmacology, 153(2), 199–215.
- Volkow, N. D., Baler, R. D., Compton, W. M., & Weiss, S. R. (2014). Adverse health effects of marijuana use. New England Journal of Medicine, 370(23), 2219–2227.
- National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2017). The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
- Blessing, E. M., Steenkamp, M. M., Manzanares, J., & Marmar, C. R. (2015). Cannabidiol as a potential treatment for anxiety disorders. Neurotherapeutics, 12(4), 825–836.